Wild Foods

Alternative Root Crops
Although this leaflet is titled Alternative Root Crops, I am not going to stick strictly to the botanists definition of a root, but am instead being much more lax and will be discussing all types of underground storage organs including tubers, bulbs and corms.
The traditional root crops grown in Britain are potatoes, parsnips, carrots, beetroot, onions, turnips and swede with lesser known plants such as Jerusalem artichokes, celeriac, Chinese artichokes, radishes and winter radishes (mooli) playing a minor role. Of these, potatoes are by far the most important. They are very high yielding and, because they have a mild flavour that goes well with many other foods, they are widely used as a staple crop. They do have many disadvantages though, especially in their high susceptability to disease and in particular to blight (for which there is no acceptable organic treatment as yet).

Most of these traditional crops have been selectively bred, sometimes over thousands of years, for improved flavour and yields. Potatoes, for example, were extremely low-yielding when first introduced from S. America. The wild carrot has a thin woody root that bears little comparison to the cultivated plant. This selective breeding, however, has not been an unconditional success. Potatoes must be one of our most disease-prone crops - you only have to look at them and they go down with blight. Carrots suffer from root fly and violet root rot, assuming you can get them past the seedling stage without them being eaten by slugs or overtaken by weeds.

Many of the plants mentioned in this leaflet, on the other hand, have never been bred as a food crop so yields will often be rather lower. They are, however, usually much less prone to pests and diseases and so are often easier to grow. They are also in general much more robust plants and can often be grown in a semi-wild setting and just harvested as required. There is an added bonus to this, since with many of the plants, such as Erythronium species, it is possible to grow them amongst other plants and so their yield is an extra bonus from the land. For more information on this method of growing please see our leaflet Why Perennials.

The plants detailed in the list below are rather a diverse bunch and as a result they have a variety of cultivation needs. Unless the text says otherwise you can assume that the plant will succeed in full sun or light shade in most well- drained soils and will yield much better if the soil is fairly rich in organic matter. Unlike most of the information leaflets we issue, there are some species in this list that we have not as yet grown but wish to obtain. This is clearly marked in the text - if by any chance you are growing any of these plants then we certainly won't object if you send a root or three in our direction.

Apios americana. The GROUND NUT is a herbaceous climbing plant, reaching about 4ft tall. It belongs to the pea and bean family and, like many other members of that family, it helps to enrich the soil with nitrogen by means of bacteria which live on the roots and fix atmospheric nitrogen. The root, which is unusually high in protein, has a very pleasant sweet taste when baked and is one of our favourite roots. It can be cooked in many other ways and can also be eaten raw, though it is rather a tough chew. Yields from the wild plant are fairly low, though they are much better if the plant is left in the ground for 2 years before harvesting, There are a number of cultivated forms being developed, however, that have much higher yields and the plant has been recommended for commercial cultivation. This species can be grown along the sunny edges of a woodland garden and either allowed to twine its way into small shrubs or given some supports to climb into. One correspondant says that this plant has some "anti nutritional factors, such as trypsin inhibitors ... so it should be cooked before being eaten"

Camassia quamash. QUAMASH is a beautiful bulbous plant that grows about 2ft tall and flowers in early summer. It belongs to the onion family (though it does not taste like it) and the flowers look a little bit like a bluebell. Plants can succeed in short grass, so long as this is not to vigorous, and can therefore be grown in the light shade of a tree in the lawn. Do not cut the grass during the time when the bulbs come into growth until they die down in mid summer. Quamash bulbs are about the size of a small onion, they are rich in starch and develop a very nice sweet flavour when slowly baked. They can also be eaten raw but their texture is not then to my liking, being somewhat gummy. Quamash was a staple food of the N. American Indians. Local tribes would move to the quamash fields in the early autumn and, whilst some people harvested the bulbs, others would dig a pit, line it with boulders then fill it with wood and set fire to it. The fire would heat the boulders and the harvested bulbs would then be placed in the pit and the whole thing covered with earth and the bulbs left to cook slowly for 2 days. The pit would then be opened and the Indians would feast on the bulbs until they could no longer fit any more in their stomachs. Whatever was left would be dried and stored for winter use. We are intending to experiment with growing quamash in an orchard - the plants will have died down before the first apples are harvested and so will not get in the way. The bulbs should increase of their own accord and then we can harvest them in much the same way as the Indians, though we might not eat them in quite the same way!

Cyperus esculentus. TIGER NUTS are a noxious weed in the tropics, but are also a cultivated crop and can sometimes be found on sale in Britain. Plants grow about 2ft tall and prefer a sunny position in a soil that is on the wet side. Plants that I have grown have seemed to be quite hardy (forms of the plant have become naturalised as far north as Alaska) but yields have been disappointing so far. This is at least partly because I have been having problems getting the tubers to come into new growth in the spring. I normally harvest them after the first frosts have cut back top growth and then store them in moist sand in a cool frost-free place. In late March I pot them up and put them into a polytunnel, but they can take months before coming into growth and consequently do not manage to get in a full growing season. I am probably making some elementary mistake with the plant. but have yet to work out what it is. The tubers are small and rather fiddly but they have a delicious sweet flavour. They can be eaten raw but are very chewy unless soaked beforehand. Tiger nuts are unusual amongst roots in that they contain a relatively high level of oil and this is sometimes extracted and used as a high-grade food oil.

Dioscorea batatas. This hardy YAM is cultivated in Japan as a root crop but, although it grows very well here, it has never been grown much in this country. A climbing plant reaching 8ft or more in height, it requires a sunny position in a fertile well-drained soil and should be given some support on which to twine. If you have a deep rich soil then the root can be up to 3ft long and weigh 4lbs or more. Rich in starch, it is best baked but can also be boiled, added to stews etc. There is no strong flavour, but the overall taste is very acceptable and it can be eaten in quantity as a staple crop. It reminds me of a floury potato. You can propagate the plant by cutting off the top few inches of root and replanting this. An easier method is to harvest the small tubercles (baby tubers that look a little like small bulbs) that are formed in the leaf axils along the stems. Collect them in late summer, once they are easily detached from the plant, and pot them up immediately in a cold greenhouse. They will remain dormant in the winter and then come into growth in the spring. Plant them out in the summer when they are in active growth.

Erythronium species. DOG'S TOOTH VIOLETS are dainty woodland bulbs. They grow about 1ft tall and flower in early spring, disappearing completely by early summer. Grow them in light shade and consider also growing them under trees in the orchard or on a lawn. Suitable varieties increase very freely when well sited and the bulb, which can be 3 inches long and about an inch wide, has a pleasant sweet taste. It can be eaten raw or cooked. Any of the species can be used, though these are quite expensive to obtain and many people would consider the plant too beautiful to eat. The cultivars White Beauty and Pagoda are easily grown forms that are relatively cheap to buy and usually divide freely in the garden.

Helianthus tuberosus. JERUSALEM ARTICHOKES are a fairly well-known root crop that is occasionally cultivated. The plants are very vigorous, growing up to 10ft tall, and some people have been growing them successfully as part of a woodland garden, planting them on the sunnier side of the woodland. Slugs absolutely adore the young shoots in spring, so give the plants some protection at this time of the year. We find that a mulch of oak leafmould works well. The main drawback of this root is that over half of the carbohydrate it contains is in the form of inulin and this cannot be absorbed by the body. It does mean that you can eat quite a lot of it without putting on weight, but it does also mean that many people will find the inulin fermenting in their gut causing quite a bit of wind! The tubers can be eaten raw or cooked and the flavour improves if they are left in the ground until frosted.

Lathyrus tuberosus. The TUBEROUS PEA has one of the nicest tubers I have ever eaten, a view shared by many of the people who have eaten it. Unfortunately the plant is rather low yielding and so unless improved cultivars are developed it will never become more than an occasional delicacy. Grow the plant on the sunny side of a woodland, or perhaps in a cultivated bed amongst shrubs. It grows about 3ft tall and twines around available supports. It is quite a weak climber, however, and is more likely to sprawl across the ground. A member of the pea and bean family, the plant will enrich the soil with nitrogen.

Lilium lancifolium. The TIGER LILY is often grown in the flower garden but in the Orient it is cultivated for its edible bulb. In fact when grown as a root crop the Chinese actually pick off the flower buds to stimulate the production of larger bulbs. All other members of this genus also produce edible bulbs, though these can often have a bitter flavour. When baked, lily bulbs taste rather like potatoes. One word of warning with this particular species - although tolerant of virus disease, it can often act as a carrier of these diseases and so becomes a vector infecting other species. It is therefore wise to either grow this species well away from your other lilies, or to avoid growing the other species if you grow this one. The plant is easily propagated by means of bulbils that form in the leaf axils. Simply pot these up in the summer when they part easily from the plant and then plant them out in the spring 18 months later. Allow some of the bulbils to fall to the ground to see of the plant will maintain itself without your help.

Lomatium cous. This is a plant that I have not as yet grown but would like to obtain, It comes from western N. America and grows on dry often open rocky slopes and flats. It is often found with sagebrush, is most common in foothills and lowland areas but is occasionally found above the treeline. The root is eaten cooked, it can also be dried and ground into a flour and can then be mixed with cereal flours or added to soups etc. When dug up in the spring, it is said to have a parsnip-like flavour. I would also be interested in obtaining any other members of this genus, in particular L. geyeri and L. macrocarpum. Known as BISCUIT ROOTS, they have celery-flavoured roots that can be eaten raw or cooked. The N. American Indians dried and ground them into a flour and then either mixed it with cereal flours or added it to soups etc. They also mixed the flour with water, flattened it into cakes then sun-dried or baked them for use on journeys, the taste is said to be somewhat like stale biscuits.

Orogenia linearifolia. INDIAN POTATO is another plant that I would like to obtain. It grows about 15cm tall on open mountain sides and ridges, often in sandy or gravelly soils, and especially near vernal snowbanks where it blooms as soon as the snow melts. It is found in much of western N. America. The root is said to have a pleasant crisp taste, though the outer skin has a slightly bitter taste. Available at almost any time of the year, its only drawback is that it is a bit small and fiddly to harvest in quantity.

Oxalis tuberosa. OCA has had a long history of cultivation in S. America where it is one of the three most popular root crops. The tuber can be 3 inches long and about an inch wide - yields per plant are often not much below that from potatoes. The plants are about as hardy as potatoes, tolerating light frosts but dying down in harder frosts. In mild areas the tubers can be left in the ground and harvested as required (so long as the ground does not get too wet in the winter), but in colder areas it is best to harvest them when the plant dies down and store them in a cool frost-free place. The tubers have a lemon flavour when first harvested but if you leave them out in the sun for a week or so they become quite sweet. Some cultivars, in fact, become so sweet that they are eaten rather like a fruit in S. America. The main disadvantage of this plant is that it does not start to form tubers until around the autumn equinox and so, if there is an early heavy frost, yields will be very low.

Perideridia gairdneri. YAMPA is a plant that I have not as yet grown but would dearly love to get my hands on. The root can be eaten raw or cooked and is said to have a pleasant sweet and nutty taste that can be eaten in quantity. The flavour is said to be somewhat like a superior parsnip and the dried root is said to be so nice that it is an almost irresistable nibble. The root is best harvested when the plant is dormant and can also be dried for later use or ground into a flour and used in porridges, cakes etc. Yampa grows in woodland and wet meadows in its native range, which stretches from California along the west of N. America to Saskatchewan in Canada and so it should be perfectly hardy here.

Polymnia edulis. YACON is often cultivated for its edible root in S. America, where yields of 15 tons per acre have been achieved. This frost-tender plant grows about 3ft tall and can be cultivated like potatoes, it requires a 6 - 7 month growing season so would probably not succeed in the colder parts of the country. It is best started off in pots even in the warmer areas. A fast-growing and tolerant plant, it succeeds in poor soils though it yields better in soils of at least reasonable quality and requires a sunny position. The large root is crisp and juicy and in some cultivars is also incredibly sweet, though the skin is often bitter. In S. America it is eaten more like a fruit than a root. The nutritional value is low, however, because much of the carbohydrate in the root is in the form of inulin. The human gut is unable to assimilate inulin and so it passes straight through the digestive system. This makes it an ideal food if you are on a diet to lose weight and want to eat enough to fill yourself up! A gentle warning, however. Inulin causes fermentation in the gut of some people, leading to the expulsion of gases through the rear passage (I'm trying to be delicate here!) Inulin can be easily converted to fructose, a sugar that is safe for diabetics to use, and so it is sometimes used to make a sweetener.

Psoralea esculenta. BREADROOT is a famous N. American Indian food, though we have yet to grow it. Perfectly hardy in this country, it requires a sunny position and like many members of the pea and bean family it helps to enrich the soil with nitrogen. The root can be eaten raw, cooked or be dried for later use. The dried root can also be ground into a flour and used in cakes, porridges etc. Starchy and glutinous, the raw root is said to have a sweetish turnip-like taste. The plant has in the past been recommended for commercial cultivation and has the potential to be high yielding.

Sagittaria species. Most if not all members of this genus produce edible tubers and a number of them are cultivated for this, especially in the Orient. They succeed in wet soils but are best in water 1 - 2ft deep. S. sagittifolia, the ARROWHEAD, is a native species and this is the plant that is most frequently cultivated. Its tubers can often be purchased in Chinese shops in this country and this is one of the best ways of obtaining plants, though the tubers need to be fresh if they are to grow away before rotting. The tubers are starchy with a distinct flavour that people have likened to potatoes, though I'm not sure that I agree. There is a slight bitterness, but this is mainly in the skin which is best removed after cooking. They make a very acceptable stodge part of the meal. The tubers can also be dried and ground into a flour, this flour can then be used as a gruel etc or can be added to cereal flours and used in making bread, biscuits or cakes. The tubers, which can be produced up to 1 metre from the plant, are best harvested in the late summer as the leaves die down, they should not be eaten raw. Other species to try include:- S. cuneata, the WAPATO, S. graminea; and S. latifolia, the DUCK POTATO.

Sium sisarum. SKIRRET grows about 4ft tall and used to be cultivated for its edible root. This can be eaten raw or cooked and is firm, sweet and floury but with a woody core. The plant is very pest and disease-resistant. It requires plenty of moisture in the growing season otherwise its root will tend to be very fibrous. Make sure that you do not grow the sub-species S. sisarum lancifolium since this is very unlikely to produce good quality roots.

Stachys affinis. CHINESE ARTICHOKES grow about 1ft tall and dislike dry soils or shade. Their roots are rather small and fiddly, though overall yields are quite good and they have a pleasant flavour with a nice crisp juicy texture. They can be eaten raw or cooked, I prefer them chopped up and added to a mixed salad. Incidently, there is an easy way of cleaning small and fiddly roots. You half fill a bucket with water, add a good quantity of dirt so that you have a nice muddy mixture. You then add all the roots that you want to wash and stir the mixture for a few minutes. Then tip out the roots and rinse them - they will be lovely and clean, ready for use.

Tropaeolum tuberosum. This beautiful climbing plant is only hardy in the milder areas of the country, where it can reach a height of 6 ft or more. It flowers freely in late summer and then dies down with the first hard frosts in the autumn. It produces a number of edible tubers near the soil surface and can be quite heavy-yielding. In mild winter areas the tubers can be left in the ground (though it would be a good idea to mulch them), in colder areas they should be harvested and stored in much the same way as dahlias. The tubers are quite popular in S. America, but they are probably best described as an acquired taste. The rather peppery flavour is improved considerably if the tubers are cooked and then frozen before eating them. (You can warm them up again if you like!) We have also found that if the tubers are left in the ground and then harvested after being frosted the flavour is much nicer. The tuber is considered by people in the Andes to lower the sex-drive and many men refuse to eat it, whilst recommending it for women! Clinical trials have indicated a reduction of up to 45% in some male hormones when the tuber forms a considerable part of the diet, but no loss in fertility has been observed. The growing plant is very resistant to diseases and insects, it contains nematocidal, bactericidal and insecticidal compounds. The main problem with growing this plant in Britain is that the tubers are not formed until the shorter days of autumn and if you get an early frost then yields can be very low. The cultivar Ken Aslett is probably the best form available in this country, it comes into flower earlier and produces larger tubers than the species type.

Typha latifolia. Our native REEDMACE is potentially one of the most productive rootcrops that can be grown. Not only that, its native habitat is marshy ground and shallow water where it makes a superb wild-life habitat. Thus instead of destroying valuable habitats by draining our wetlands in order to grow more wheat that is then used to build the huge grain mountains in Europe, we could be growing this plant with a lot less work and getting higher yields into the bargain. The root can be eaten raw or cooked. It can be boiled and eaten like potatoes or macerated and boiled to yield a sweet syrup. The root can also be dried, ground into a flour and then used as a thickener in soups etc or added to cereal flours. Rich in protein, this flour is used to make biscuits etc. Yields of 3 tonnes of flour per acre are possible, which compares very favourably with wheat. The plant also has many other edible and non-edible uses which I will not enumerate here - ask us for a fact-sheet on these species if you would like more details. T. angustifolia is a closely related native plant with the same uses.


Alternative Edible Leaves
Most of the leaf crops we grow for food are annual plants - with all the work and problems associated with the growing of annuals such as digging the soil, preparing seed beds, sowing seed, weeding, more weeding and yet more weeding. This leaflet is going to look at a few of the many perennial leaf crops that can be grown in the garden with a fraction of the work and often with higher total yields.

Whilst many perennial food crops can be slow to begin yielding, growing perennial plants for their leaves will usually give you at least a small crop in the first year and this will then increase in the following years. The variety in tastes and textures is quite staggering - especially for those people who regard a salad as consisting of the standard lettuce, spring onions, radish, cucumber and tomatoes. When making a salad, we often include 20 or more different types of leaves. Some of these leaves will have a mild flavour and can be used in quantity to form the bulk of the salad, others will have stronger tastes and will be used more as flavourings. These stronger flavours can be very sweet, often with a liquorice-like flavour. They can be rather acid, with a lemon-like flavour. Some of them have a more savoury taste, often with a garlic or mustard flavour, whilst others are pungently hot.

Not only is there this wonderful range of flavours to choose from, but leaves are also the most nutritious of all the foods we eat. Amongst their many benefits to the health, they are rich sources of vitamins and minerals, contain a very good quality protein and supply essential dietary fibre. The range of plants listed below is quite diverse, and species suitable for any niche in the garden will be found. It is therefore very difficult to give general notes on their cultivation needs, though a very brief guide will be given. Agastache foeniculum. ANISE HYSSOP grows about 75cm tall and wide, preferring a sunny position and a dry well-drained soil. It is not hardy in the colder areas of the country, tolerating winter temperatures down to between -5 and -10°c. Although easy to grow, the young growth in spring is very susceptible to slug damage and you might need to give the plant some protection at this time. The plant flowers in mid to late summer, although not very showy, these flowers are very attractive to bees and butterflies.

The leaves are available from mid spring until early autumn and have a sweet aniseed flavour. They make a delicious addition to the salad bowl and are one of our favourite flavourings in salads. They can also be used to flavour cooked foods, especially acid fruits. The only drawback to the leaves is that they tend to have a drying effect in the mouth and so cannot be eaten in quantity.

Allium species. All members of this genus, which includes the onion, leek and garlic, are edible. By careful selection, it is possible to provide fresh leaves all year round for use in salads and as a flavouring in cooked dishes. The flavours range from mild onion right through to the strongest garlic. Unless stated otherwise, all members of this genus require a well-drained soil and a sunny position. In general they do not grow well with weed competition, though there are exceptions.

Allium cepa. This species includes the common ONION, which will not be discussed here. There is, however, a very interesting and productive form called the EVERLASTING ONION. This grows in a similar manner to chives, quickly forming a large clump. The leaves have a mild onion flavour and can be used like spring onions in salads or as a flavouring in cooked foods. The plant is evergreen and very hardy, so it can provide its edible leaves all year round, even in quite severe winters.
Allium fistulosum. The WELSH ONION is rather similar to the above species in growth habit and flavour. It is not quite so winter hardy, though, and in severe winters will die back to the ground. It will soon grow away with the return of warmer weather in the spring, however.
Allium neapolitanum. DAFFODIL GARLIC grows about 30cm tall, forming a gradually expanding clump. This is one of our very favourite leaves, having at first a delicious sweetness followed by a moderately strong garlic flavour. A plant for a warm sunny bed, it is not very winter hardy outside the south of Britain. It comes into growth in the autumn, provides its leaves all through the winter then flowers in the spring and dies down until the following autumn.
Allium schoenoprasum. CHIVES are perhaps too well known to be included here, but I would like to remind you that they are a very productive crop and can supply their mild, onion flavoured leaves from late winter until late autumn.
Allium triquetrum. THREE-CORNERED LEEK has become naturalised in south-western Britain where it often forms large colonies in lightly shaded places. It is an ideal plant for growing at the base of a hedge or on a woodland edge. Like the previous species, this is a plant that grows in the winter and is dormant in the summer. The leaves have an onion-garlic flavour and we often use them in quantity in salads. Like the previous species, this plant is not very cold tolerant though by giving it the protection of the trees and shrubs in the woodland it will succeed in many parts of the country.
Allium tuberosum. GARLIC CHIVES forms a slowly spreading clump about 30cm tall. As the common name suggests, the leaves have a very pleasant flavour very much like a cross between garlic and chives. They are available from the middle of spring until late autumn. The plant is capable of growing all year round in warmer climates than Britain and so, if you pot them up in late summer and grow them on the kitchen windowsill, you will be able to pick the leaves all through the winter.
Allium ursinum. WILD GARLIC is a native plant and is often found forming large colonies in woodlands. If it is not growing wild near you, then it is quite easy to establish the plant in a shady part of the garden. It will be more than capable of looking after itself and will provide you with its garlic flavoured leaves from late winter until late spring.
Atriplex halimus. The SALT BUSH is an evergreen shrub growing about 1.5 metres tall and wide. It requires a very sunny position in a well-drained soil and makes a good hedge. Instead of spending all your time trimming hedges, grow this plant and trim it by harvesting the young growth for use in salads and as a spinach substitute. The leaves have a distinctive salty taste and has become one of our favourites. The only problem we have with it is that it produces very little growth in the winter and so harvesting at this time of the year has to be very moderate. The plant soon bursts into vigorous growth with the warmer spring weather and can then be harvested in quantity. When picking the leaves, do not strip them from the stems but instead pick the whole stem. Harvest just the top 3 - 5cm if using them in salads, but harvest young shoots up to 25cm long if cooking them. When lightly steamed, the leaves retain their flavour and texture well, making an excellent spinach substitute.

The plant is very wind resistant and is tolerant of very salty soils and also of dry conditions. It makes an excellent shelter hedge in maritime areas. It is not cold-hardy in all areas, being defoliated if temperatures drop much below -5°c for any period of time, and often being killed at temperatures much below -10°c.

Brassica oleracea. This species includes some of our most common vegetables such as the cabbage, cauliflower and Brussels sprouts. Whilst these plants are biennial, there are also a few perennial forms. Although not widely known, these perennials can be amongst the most productive food plants that can be grown in the garden. They all grow best in a sunny position and succeed in most soils, doing well in heavy clays. They do not like very acid conditions.

The true wild form of B. oleracea is the WILD CABBAGE, which can still be found growing by the sea in many parts of the country. A short-lived evergreen perennial, it can grow up to 1.2 metres tall. The leaves have a stronger flavour than the cultivated cabbages, and at times can have a distinct bitterness, especially in the winter. However, we find this to be a very acceptable cooked vegetable and use it in quantity. Plants will usually live for 3 - 5 years, though we have seen some that are 10 years old or more.

Whilst most of the plants developed from the wild cabbage have lost the ability to be perennial, there are just a few forms where the perennial tendency has been increased. Perhaps our favourite is the TREE COLLARDS. This plant grows about 2 metres tall and wide, living for up to 20 years. It has mild flavoured dark green leaves that are wrinkled and look rather like Savoy cabbage leaves, though the plant does not form a heart. You harvest the young shoots when 5 - 25cm long and cook them stem and all. They are an excellent cabbage substitute.

A variety of KALE called 'Daubenton' is another very good perennial form. About the same size as the preceding species, the leaves have a somewhat coarser flavour but make a very acceptable cooked vegetable.

Bunias orientalis. TURKISH ROCKET grows into a clump about 75cm tall and wide. It is a very easily grown plant, succeeding in most soils and preferring a sunny position, though I have also seen it growing well in the light shade of a woodland garden. The plants are also tolerant of considerable neglect and, once established, will grow quite well even in long grass.

The young leaves have a mild flavour that is a cross between cabbage and radish. They go very well in a mixed salad and when cooked make an excellent vegetable. They are available early in the year, usually towards the end of winter, and the plant will continue to produce leaves until late autumn, with a bit of a gap when the plant is in flower.

Campanula species. This is a very large genus that contains some very desirable ornamental plants. They are in general fairly easy to grow, most of them preferring a position in full sun and all of them requiring a well-drained soil. They are little bothered by pests and diseases, though slugs adore the leaves and can totally decimate the plants in wet weather.

All members of this genus have more or less edible leaves, and some of them have such nice tasting leaves that I am amazed they are not better known. I will only list a few of our favourites here, though feel free to try any other species you might be growing since none of them are poisonous.

C. persicifolia. This species grows about 1 metre tall, spreading quite quickly at the roots to form large clumps. It does well in light shade as well as full sun, growing well on a woodland edge. The leaves are rather narrow but have a pleasant slightly sweet flavour. We use them in salads and have not tried cooking them as yet. In mild winters, or when given the protection of a woodland, the plants will often produce leaves in the winter and can therefore be harvested all year round. The sub-species C. persicifolia crystalocalyx has larger leaves than the species and so is more suitable as a food crop.
C. poscharskyana. This is a low-growing evergreen plant. About 20cm tall, it spreads rapidly at the roots to form large clumps and therefore makes an excellent ground cover in a sunny position or light shade. Very tolerant of dry conditions, it will even succeed on an old brick wall. The leaves have a slightly sweet flavour, but are a bit on the chewy side. They make an acceptable addition to mixed salads, though we do not like them cooked. Not one of our favourite salads, but they do provide a good source of winter leaves.
C. portenschlagiana is rather similar to the above and can be used in the same ways.
C. takesimana. Growing about 50cm tall and spreading rapidly at the roots, the leaves and leaf stems of this plant have a very similar flavour to iceberg lettuce. They are available from early spring until the autumn, though they can become a bit bitter in the summer.
C. versicolor. Growing up to 1.2 metres tall, this is one of the nicest salad plants I have ever tasted. The leaves have a delicious sweetness that is very similar to fresh garden peas. The plants have a tap root and do not spread. They form a basal rosette of leaves in the winter and can be harvested in moderation in mild winters and then in greater quantities in the spring and summer. Unfortunately, the plant is only hardy in the milder areas of the country and is not very productive of leaves. It is also very susceptible to attacks by slugs. However, if you want to give it a bit of extra care, it will reward you with some very tasty salads and also a superb display of flowers from mid summer until well into the autumn.
Cichorium intybus. CHICORY forms a rosette of leaves up to 50cm tall, though when flowering it sends up a shoot that can be 1.5 metres tall. It prefers growing in a sunny position and will succeed in any moderately fertile well-drained moisture retentive soil, though it is most at home in chalky soils.

Chicory leaves are quite bitter, and few people can eat them in quantity. However, they are very nutritious and are especially beneficial to the healthy functioning of the liver and kidneys. We find the best way of eating them is to chop them quite finely and use them as a minor ingredient of mixed salads that also contain some of the sweeter tasting leaves - this way you get their health benefits without really noticing the bitterness. Chicory is one of the most productive and reliable winter salad crops, though unfortunately you have to sow the seed of selected cultivars each year in order to produce winter leaves - see our leaflet Winter Salads for more information on this.

Hibiscus syriacus. The ROSE OF SHARON is a deciduous shrub that grows up to 3 metres tall and 2 metres wide, though it can be kept smaller by trimming it, and can be grown as a hedge. It prefers a well-drained humus rich fertile soil in a sheltered position in full sun and succeeds in any soil of good or moderate quality. Plants are hardy to about -20°c but plants only really succeed in the warmer counties of Britain because of their late flowering habit. They are also slightly tender when young and when planted in colder areas of the country, they will need protection for the first few winters.

The young leaves can be eaten raw or cooked. They have a very mild, slightly nutty flavour, and though slightly on the tough side they make an acceptable addition to the salad bowl.

Malva moschata. The MUSK MALLOW is a very easily grown plant that succeeds in most soils, though it prefers a reasonably well-drained and moderately fertile soil in a sunny position.

The leaves are available from early or mid spring until the plant comes into flower in the summer. If the plants are then trimmed back, they will produce a fresh flush of leaves in late summer and the early autumn. The leaves have a pleasant mild flavour with a mucilaginous texture that is very beneficial to the digestive system. This is one of our major salad leaves, we use them in bulk in salads and they make an excellent lettuce substitute.

M. alcea is a closely related species that can be used similarly.

Montia perfoliata. MINER'S LETTUCE is a short-lived annual to perennial plant, but it self-sows so freely that you will never be without it. Growing about 15cm tall, it usually forms a carpet of growth and makes a good ground cover. It prefers a moist peaty soil, though it can succeed on very poor and dry soils and thrives in the shade of trees. The leaves have a fairly bland flavour with a mucilaginous texture, they make a very acceptable salad and are available all year round, even in severe winters.

M. sibirica is a closely related species. It is more reliably perennial and can even succeed in the dense shade of beech trees. The leaves have a stronger flavour, with a distinct earthy taste of raw beetroot that not everyone likes.

Myrrhis odorata. SWEET CICELY grows up to 1 metre tall and wide. It prefers a moist rich soil in a shady position and grows very well on a woodland edge. The leaves have a delicious sweet aniseed flavour and make an excellent addition to mixed salads. They are also used as a flavouring for vegetables and can be cooked with tart fruits in order to reduce their acidity. The plant produces fresh leaves from late winter until early the following winter.

Oxalis deppei. The IRON CROSS PLANT is a very attractive bulbous plant that forms a fountain of leaves and flowers about 25cm tall and 15cm wide. Easily grown, it prefers a sandy soil in a warm dry sunny position and dislikes dry or heavy soils. It is only hardy outdoors in the milder areas of Britain, tolerating temperatures down to about -5°c or perhaps a bit lower if the soil is very well-drained. The bulbs are easily harvested in late autumn, however, and can be stored overwinter in a cool frost free place, replanting them in the spring. In milder winter areas a good mulch is usually sufficient to see the bulbs through the winter and they will then normally be more productive of leaves and flowers in the following year. The leaves are available from late spring until the autumn frosts. They have a delicious lemony flavour and make an excellent flavouring in salads

Peltaria alliacea. GARLIC CRESS is a vigorous spreading plant that grows up to 30cm tall and makes a good ground cover in a sunny position or in light shade. It prefers a light fertile moist soil though it is not too fussy.

An evergreen plant, it provides its edible leaves all year round apart for a few weeks in the summer when it is flowering and producing seed. These leaves have a strong garlic/mustard flavour which we find makes an excellent addition to salads or cooked dishes. They do develop a rather bitter aftertaste in hot dry weather though.

Reichardia picroides. Looking somewhat like a dandelion, this plant grows about 30cm tall and wide, forming a basal rosette of leaves. It is easily grown in any moderately fertile well-drained soil in a sunny position, though it grows best in a shady position in summer where it will produce better quality leaves. It is not hardy in the colder areas of the country, tolerating temperatures down to between -5 and -10°c. It is likely to be hardier when grown in a soil on the poor side, though the leaves will not be so tender nor so freely produced. Plants are also likely to be hardier in well-drained soils and they dislike very wet weather. This plant has proved to be almost totally slug-proof, even in a very heavily slug-infested garden.

The leaves have a pleasant agreeable flavour with a slight sweetness, they make a very acceptable lettuce substitute. Unlike most salad plants, the older leaves often have a sweeter and more pleasant flavour than the young ones and remain sweet even when the plant is in flower. Cut the plant back regularly in the summer in order to produce fresh crops of leaves and make harvesting easier. In areas with mild winters the plant will provide edible leaves all year round.

Rumex acetosa. SORREL is a very easily grown and tolerant plant that can be up to 50cm tall and 30cm wide. It succeeds in most soils though it prefers a moist moderately fertile well-drained soil in a sunny position. Established plants are tolerant of considerable neglect, surviving and producing tasty leaves even in dense weed growth. They will also grow well in the sunnier areas of a woodland garden.

The leaves have a delicious acid flavour, they make a marvellous flavouring in mixed salads and can also be cooked like spinach. I like munching on them when working in the garden, they have a very refreshing effect on the mouth and also relieve thirst. There are some named varieties of this species that have been selected for their larger leaves and reluctance to flower. We are growing a Polish form that has only flowered once in the last seven years. Instead of wasting its energy on seed production it concentrates on producing masses of large leaves and so is very productive. It also produces a small crop of smaller leaves all through the winter.

Rumex scutatus. FRENCH SORREL has a similar taste to the above, though is perhaps more delicate. Another very productive plant, though the leaves are rather smaller. It is a very drought tolerant plant and can even be grown in old walls.

Taraxacum officinale. The DANDELION is a common weed of lawns, growing about 30cm tall and producing a mass of attractive flowers in the spring. A very easily grown plant, it succeeds in most soils, though it prefers a well-drained humus-rich neutral to alkaline soil in full sun or light shade.

Like the chicory mentioned earlier, dandelion leaves are rather bitter but are an extremely healthy addition to the diet. We chop them up and add small quantities to mixed salads so that their bitterness is not overpowering. The easiest way of growing dandelions is to just allow them to look after themselves in the lawn. Not only will they provide you with edible leaves all year round, but they will also make the lawn look really pretty when they are flowering in the spring.
There are also some cultivated forms of dandelion that are supposed to have nicer tasting leaves, though we have not really found these to be superior.

Tilia cordata. The LIME TREE prefers a good moist loamy alkaline to neutral soil but it also succeeds on slightly acid soils. Growth is rather poor, however, if the soil is very dry or very wet. The plant tolerates considerable exposure to the wind and succeeds in sun or semi-shade.

The young leaves have a mild, slightly sweet taste with a somewhat mucilaginous texture. They make an excellent salad or sandwich filling and we use them in quantity when they are available. Lime trees usually produce a mass of young shoots from the base of their trunks and it is often possible to harvest these leaves from the middle of spring until early autumn.

One problem with growing this tree is that the leaves are very attractive to leaf aphis. These aphis produce an abundance of sweet secretions which drip off the leaves to the ground below and also attract sooty mould fungus. Any plants growing below a lime tree are likely to become covered with this mould.

All the other members of this genus also produce edible leaves - though some are rather on the tough side. We would most recommend our other two native species, T. platyphyllos and T. x vulgaris.

Urtica dioica. STINGING NETTLES are an excellent and nutritious cooked vegetable. They can usually be found growing luxuriantly in the wild, so there is little or no need to cultivate them. If you do want to grow them - and they are excellent plants for the wildlife garden as well as having a whole catalogue of other uses - then they prefer a soil rich in phosphates and nitrogen.

The young leaves make a very good spinach substitute and are also used for making soups. The only problem I have with them is that they smell rather like fish when they are cooking, and I am not enamoured by the smell of fish. Nettles are a very nutritious food that is easily digested and is high in minerals (especially iron) and vitamins (especially A and C). Only use the young leaves since old leaves can cause kidney upsets, and always wear stout gloves when harvesting them to prevent being stung. Cooking the leaves, or thoroughly drying them, completely neutralises the sting, rendering the leaf safe to eat.

Edible Flowers
Many people find the concept of eating flowers to be a little strange - indeed there are a few who find the very idea to be distasteful. This is rather sad because, as well as providing a nutritious food, there are some amazing taste treats in store for those who are willing to experiment with their foods.

Nutritionally, the flower can be divided into three main elements. Firstly, there is the pollen. Although only present in fairly small quantities, this is a very rich source of protein and so helps to build and maintain the body structure. Its flavour is usually rather bland.

Secondly, we have the nectar. This is usually rather sweet and is the substance that most attracts bees to the flowers to pollinate them. The bees turn the nectar into honey - when we eat the flowers we can use the sugars in the nectar to provide us with a good source of energy. Nectar provides a balanced form of sugars together with a range of minerals and does not have the negative effects of refined sugars such as rotting the teeth.

Finally, we have the petals and other parts of the flower structure. Although not normally as nutritious as leaves, they do have many similarities nutritionally and so can provide us with a good range of vitamins and minerals. Yellow flowers, in particular, are very good sources of vitamin A. The flavour and texture of flowers varies from species to species. Some are very crisp and crunchy, others almost silky soft. A few flowers have a very savoury taste whilst others can be very hot or have a very mild flavour. Depending on the quantities of nectar present, they can also be very sweet. If looking primarily for sweetness, by the way, you will normally be best off picking the flowers in the morning before bees and other insects have depleted the stocks of nectar.

We tend to eat quite a lot of flowers. They usually make a very attractive addition to salads, the only problem we have had with doing this is that the salads can look so attractive that people are reluctant to disturb what they see as a work of art! We also enjoy just snacking on the flowers when in the garden - they usually provide a tasty and thirst-quenching snack. We have not as yet tried cooking with them - they are so delicate that I am sure both their texture and taste would be destroyed.

Unless stated otherwise, all the plants listed below are herbaceous perennials and should be hardy in most parts of the country. They are quite a diverse range of plants, and species suitable for almost any niche in the garden will be found here. It is therefore very difficult to give general notes on their cultivation needs, though a very brief guide will be given.

Allium species. The flowers of the various ONIONS and GARLICS have a very similar taste to the leaves, though they are usually somewhat stronger and also sweeter. They make a particularly attractive addition to salads and we usually eat them in quantity. By careful selection of species, it is possible to have flowers from April right round to October or even November. I will only give a very brief list here of some of our more favourite species, for more information please see our leaflet 'Allium species - the Perennial Onions', which deals with this genus in much greater detail. Unless stated otherwise, all members of this genus require a well-drained soil and a sunny position. In general they do not grow well with weed competition, though there are exceptions. A. cernuum. The NODDING ONION grows about 40cm tall, forming a clump about 25cm wide, it has some of the most beautiful flowers in the genus. These are produced in mid summer and have a strong onion flavour. A real taste treat, we use them in quantity in salads. If you can get hold of it, the cultivar 'Major' is a more vigorous form with larger flower clusters. A. moly. GOLDEN GARLIC grows up to 30cm tall and 10cm wide. Its yellow flowers are produced in early summer and have a very crisp texture with a garlic-like flavour. An excellent flavouring in salads, though too strong to be used in large quantities. Be careful not to get the sub-species A. moly bulbiferum since this produces bulbils in the flowering head and can be invasive. Golden garlic is a very vigorous plant that can look after itself, it is useful for naturalising between shrubs and grows well at the base of a beech hedge in a wet garden. A. neapolitanum. Growing up to 30cm tall and 20cm wide, DAFFODIL GARLIC produces its white flowers in mid spring. These have a delicious sweetness followed by a fairly strong garlic flavour. The plant is not hardy in the colder parts of Britain, but in gardens where it is happy it will usually self-sow quite freely. Try to obtain the cultivar 'Grandiflorum' since this has larger flowers which are also produced in greater abundance. A. tuberosum. GARLIC CHIVES grows about 30cm tall and 25cm wide. Its white flowers, which are produced in the autumn, have a nice onion flavour. A. ursinum. WILD GARLIC is a plant for naturalising in woodlands, where it can form extensive carpets of growth. The white flowers are produced in mid to late spring and have a strong garlic flavour.

Aquilegia vulgaris. COLUMBINE is a very beautiful native plant growing up to 1 metre tall and 50cm wide. Very easily grown, it succeeds in most soils and prefers a position in sun or light shade. When well sited it will usually self-sow freely. Although all other parts of the plant are mildly toxic, the flowers are perfectly safe to eat. Rich in nectar, they make a sweet and delightful addition to mixed salads, though I like them so much that they are usually eaten as soon as they are picked. There are many named varieties and a whole range of different colours can be grown. All other members of this genus can be used similarly.

Asclepias tuberosa. Growing up to 75cm tall and 50cm wide, PLEURISY ROOT prefers a well-drained light, rich or peaty soil that is on the dry side, and a sunny position. The plants are particularly attractive to slugs and some protection will probably be required, especially in the spring when the new shoots come into growth. The beautiful orange flowers are produced in mid to late summer. In hot weather they produce so much nectar that this crystallises out into small lumps which can then be eaten like sweets. The flower clusters can also be boiled down to make a sugary syrup. For more information about the many uses of this plant and other members of the genus, please see our leaflet 'The Milkweeds'.

Asphodeline lutea. Growing up to 1 metre tall and eventually forming a clump 1 metre or more wide, YELLOW ASPHODEL is a very easily grown plant that succeeds in most soils so long as they are well-drained. It grows best in full sun, though it also tolerates partial shade and is very drought tolerant. The yellow star-shaped flowers are an epicurean's treat. They have a delightful sweetness and are delicious either on their own or in salads. They do need to be used as soon as possible after harvesting, however, because they do not store and will soon start to decompose. The plant flowers from late spring until the middle of summer - individual flowers are very short-lived, but new flowers are produced every day. We pick them in the evening and thus can enjoy them visually during the day and gastronomically in the evening.

Campanula species. This is a very large genus that contains some very desirable ornamental plants. They are in general fairly easy to grow, most of them preferring a position in full sun and all of them requiring a well-drained soil. They are little bothered by pests and diseases, though slugs adore the leaves and can totally decimate the plants in wet weather. All members of this genus have more or less edible flowers, these are usually bell-shaped and come in some shade of blue, though whites can often also be found. They usually have a mild flavour with a delicate sweetness. I will only list a few of our favourites here, though feel free to try any other species you might be growing since none of them are poisonous. C. persicifolia. This species grows about 1 metre tall, spreading quite quickly at the roots to form large clumps. It succeeds in light shade or full sun, growing well on a woodland edge. The flowers are produced from early to mid summer. C. versicolor. Growing up to 1.2 metres tall and 50cm wide, the beautiful flowers are produced in abundance from mid summer until the autumn frosts finally convince the plant that no more seed will be ripened this year. The plant requires a warm, sheltered position and is not hardy in the colder areas of the country.

Cercis siliquastrum. The JUDAS TREE is a deciduous tree growing up to 12 metres tall and 10 metres wide, though it is usually somewhat smaller in Britain. It succeeds in most soils, including chalk and dry sands, though it dislikes growing in wet soils, especially when these are of clay. A nitrogen-fixing plant, it flowers better, and is somewhat hardier, when growing on a poorish soil. It requires a very warm sunny position if it is to flower well. The purple pea-like flowers are produced on the branches of the previous or earlier years, and also on the trunk of the plant. They have a sweetish-acid taste and are a nice addition to the salad bowl.

Feijoa sellowiana. The FEIJOA is an evergreen shrub growing up to 3 metres tall and wide, though it can be kept smaller by trimming. It is not very cold-hardy and needs the protection of a sunny south or west-facing wall in all but the mildest areas of the country. It prefers a light loamy well-drained soil and can tolerate drought and salt winds. The flower petals are thick and crunchy with a sweet, crisp and delicious flavour, indeed they taste more like a fruit than many fruits.

Hemerocallis species. DAYLILIES are commonly grown ornamental plants. Easily cultivated, they grow well in most soils, though they do best in rich moist conditions and succeed in sun or shade. They are very tolerant of neglect and will succeed in short grass if the soil is moist. The only real difficulty in growing the plants is that slugs really adore the young growth and can cause considerable damage to newly planted plants or the young growth in spring. All members of this genus have edible flowers. These are trumpet-shaped, vary in size from 5 - 20cm. and look very much like lilies. In most of the species these flowers only live for one day, hence the common name. The petals are crisp and juicy with a mild sweet flavour - the base of the flower is particularly sweet due to the nectar contained there - and they make an excellent munch in the garden or can be used to decorate salads. In China the flowers are harvested as they begin to wither and are then dried and used as a flavouring and thickener in cooked foods. The following species are amongst our favourites, though it is also worthwhile trying any of the many cultivars that are grown. The only word of warning is that if the flowers are bright yellow or scented then they can often have an unpleasant aftertaste. For more information on this genus please see our leaflet 'Hemerocallis Species - The Day Lilies'.

H. dumortieri. The plants grow about 45cm tall and form a tight slowly-spreading clump 60cm or more wide. They flower from late spring to early summer. H. fulva. If you are only going to grow one daylily, then this is the species to go for. A vigorous spreading plant, it grows up to 1 metre tall and 1 metre or more wide. The flowers can be up to 20cm long, they have particularly thick, crunchy and tasty petals, whilst the taste is just amazing. They are produced in mid summer. There are a number of double-flowered named cultivars of this species that are cultivated for their edible flowers in the Orient. With twice as many petals per flower, these are especially delicious to eat. Cultivars to look out for are 'Kwanzo', 'Green Kwanzo' and 'Flore pleno'. H. middendorffii esculenta grows about 50cm tall and wide, flowering in early to mid summer. The flowers are up to 10cm long and are another of the especially nicely flavoured ones. H. multiflora. Growing up to 1 metre tall and forming a tight clump about 60cm or more wide, the flowers of this species are only about 5 - 8cm long but are produced in great profusion from mid to late summer.

Hibiscus syriacus. A deciduous shrub growing up to 3 metres tall and 2 metres wide, though it can be kept smaller by trimming. It succeeds in any soil of good or moderate quality, though it prefers a well-drained humus rich fertile soil and a sheltered position in full sun. It dislikes deep shade or badly drained soils and grows best with its roots in cool moist soil and its tops in a hot sunny position. Although hardy to about -20°c, it flowers in the autumn and will only produce these flowers in profusion when growing in the warmer counties of Britain. The flowers are 5cm or more across and are stunningly beautiful - there are many named varieties providing a wide range of colours. The flavour is mild and they have a mucilaginous texture. They are delightful in salads, both for looking at and for eating.

Malva moschata. The MUSK MALLOW is another very easily grown plant, growing up to 80cm tall and 60cm wide. It succeeds in most soils, though it prefers a reasonably well-drained and moderately fertile soil in a sunny position. Individual plants are generally quite short-lived though they can self-sow freely when in a suitable position and usually more than maintain themselves. The flowers are produced in great abundance in mid summer - if the plants are cut back when they are finishing flowering then they will often produce a fresh flush in early spring. These flowers have a very mild flavour and mucilaginous texture, they make an excellent and very decorative addition to the salad bowl. M. alcea is a closely related plant that can be used in the same way.

Oxalis deppei. The IRON CROSS PLANT is a dainty creature that grows up to 30cm tall and 10cm wide. An easily grown plant, it prefers a well-drained sandy soil in a warm dry position and strongly dislikes wet or heavy soils. It is only hardy outdoors in the milder areas of Britain, tolerating temperatures down to about -5°c or perhaps a bit lower if the soil is very well-drained. The bulbs are easily harvested in late autumn, however, and can be stored overwinter in a cool frost free place, replanting them in the spring. In milder winter areas a good mulch is usually sufficient to see the bulbs through the winter and they will then normally be more productive of leaves and flowers in the following year. The flowers are produced from early or mid summer until growth is killed back by autumn frosts. These flowers have a delicious lemony flavour, they make a delightful thirst-quenching munch and are an excellent flavouring in salads. They do contain oxalic acid, however, and so should not be eaten in large quantities since they can prevent the body being able to absorb certain nutrients from food that is consumed with them. People with a tendency to rheumatism, arthritis, gout, kidney stones and hyperacidity should take special caution if including this plant in their diet since it can exacerbate their condition.

Ribes odoratum. A deciduous shrub growing about 2½ metres tall and wide, the GOLDEN CURRANT is easily grown in a moisture retentive but well-drained loamy soil of at least moderate quality. It prefers full sun but is also quite tolerant of shade, though it does not fruit so well in such a position. It grows especially well on the sunny edges of a woodland. A very ornamental plant, the attractive yellow flowers are produced in profusion in mid spring and have a pleasant sweet taste. R. aureum is a very closely related species that can also be used.

Sambucus nigra. The ELDERBERRY is a deciduous shrub or small tree growing up to 6 metres tall and wide. Yet another very easily grown plant, it tolerates most soils and situations, growing well on chalk and in heavy clay soils. It tolerates some shade but fruits better in a sunny position. It also tolerates atmospheric pollution and coastal situations. The small white flowers are produced in large racemes in late spring and early summer. They make a delicious refreshing snack on a hot day, though you have to be a bit careful when eating them because they are very attractive to a wide range of insects and you could end up eating more than you had bargained for. The flowers can also be used to add a muscatel flavour to stewed fruits, jellies and jams, and are often used to make a sparkling wine.

Tropaeolum majus. The only annual plant included in this leaflet, the garden NASTURTIUM tolerates most soils, though it prefers a rich light well-drained soil in full sun or partial shade. More and lusher leaves are produced when the plant is growing in a rich soil, though less flowers are produced. When grown in a soil of low fertility the leaves are smaller and less lush, though more flowers are produced. Plants will often maintain themselves by self-sowing, though in cold springs the seed will often not germinate until mid or even late summer, which is too late to produce a reasonable crop. A very ornamental and free-flowering species, it is often in bloom from early summer until cut down by the autumn frosts. There are many named varieties, ranging from vigorous climbing forms to low-growing dwarf forms. The flowers have a hot, watercress-like flavour and make a tasty addition to the salad bowl. T. minus is a closely related species with the same uses.

Typha angustifolia. The REEDMACE is a very easily grown plant for boggy pond margins or shallow water up to 15cm deep. It requires a rich soil if it is to do well and succeeds in full sun or part shade. A very invasive plant, it grows 2 metres or more tall and spreads freely at the roots when in a suitable site. It is much too vigorous for growing in small areas and unless restrained by some means, such as a large bottomless container, the plant will soon completely take over a site and will grow into the pond, gradually filling it in. This species will often form an almost complete monoculture in boggy soil. The young flowering stems can be eaten raw, cooked or made into a soup. They have a taste like sweet corn.

Viola odorata. The SWEET VIOLET succeeds in most soils but prefers a cool moist well-drained humus-rich soil in partial or dappled shade and protection from scorching winds. When grown in an open sunny position it prefers a moderately heavy rich soil. Sweet violets are evergreen perennials growing about 15cm tall and forming spreading clumps. They make an excellent weed-excluding ground cover and will often self-sow when well sited. The delicately scented flowers are produced in late winter and early spring - these are usually deep blue in colour, though there are also white forms. We use them a lot in salads since they are usually the only edible flower available at this time of the year. Their sweetly perfumed taste make them a treat not to be missed. We have not tried cooking with them, but they are said to be used as a thickener in soups and stews. The flowers are also used fresh to flavour and colour confectionery. All other members of this genus have more or less edible flowers and are worthwhile trying.

Yucca baccata. There are many hardy species of YUCCA and all of them have more or less edible flowers, though this species is perhaps the nicest. They thrive in any soil that is very well-drained, but prefer a sandy loam and full exposure to the south. They require a hot dry position if they are to thrive and flower well, once established they are very drought resistant. They are also much hardier when grown on poor sandy soils. There is some disagreement over the hardyness of this species, with some reports saying that it is only hardy in the milder areas of Britain and another saying that the plants are hardy to at least -30°c. I have seen it doing well in a number of gardens in southern Britain, and it has certainly survived temperatures down to at least -10°c. The white flowers are thick and crunchy with a sweet flavour. It is best to eat them after they have been open for a few days otherwise they can have a soapy flavour.

If under 18 years of age do not attempt to eat any wild plant without adult supervision.
Before considering ANY of these plants as a food it is absolutely ESSENTIAL to read about their properties, parts used and possible contra-indications. You consume at your own risk.